nuclear physics - Why do nuclei decay so fast and slow?

Why do nuclei like Oganesson (also known as Ununoctium, this is the 118th element on the periodic table) decay in about 5 milliseconds? This is weird that they decay. In comparison, why do elements like uranium take about 200,000 years to decay, or even more? Why do atoms decay at all? Why do elements like Polonium (84th element) take only about 140 days to decay?

Answer

In a nutshell, atoms decay because they're unstable and radioactive.

Ununoctium (or Oganesson) has an atomic number of 118. That means that there are 118 protons in the nucleus of one atom of Oganesson, and that isn't including the number of neutrons in the nucleus. We'll look at the most stable isotope of Oganesson, $\mathrm{{}^{294}Og}$. The 294 means that there are 294 nucleons, or a total of 294 protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Now, the largest stable isotope of an element known is $\mathrm{{}^{208}Pb}$, or lead-208.

Beyond that many nucleons, the strong nuclear force begins to have trouble holding all those nucleons together. See, normally, we'd think of the nucleus as impossible because the protons (all having a positive charge) would repel each other, because like charges repel. That's the electromagnetic force. But scientists discovered another force, called the strong nuclear force. The strong nuclear force is many times stronger than the electromagnetic force (there's a reason it's called the strong force) but it only operates over very, very small distances. Beyond those distances, the nucleus starts to fall apart. Oganesson and Uranium atoms are both large enough that the strong force can't hold them together anymore.

So now we know why the atoms are unstable and decay (note that there are more complications to this, but this is the general overview of why). But why the difference in decay time? First, let me address one misconception. Quantum mechanics says that we don't know exactly when an atom will decay, or if it will at all, but for a collection of atoms, we can measure the speed of decay in what's called an element's half-life. It's the time required for the body of atoms to be cut in half.

So, to go back to decay time, it's related (as you might expect) again to the size of the nucleus. Generally, isotopes with an atomic number above 101 have a half-life of under a day, and $\mathrm{{}^{294}Og}$ definitely fits that description. (The one exception here is dubnium-268.) No elements with atomic numbers above 82 have stable isotopes. Uranium's atomic number is 92, so it is radioactive, but decays much more slowly than Oganessson for the simple reason that it is smaller.

Interestingly enough, because of reasons not yet completely understood, there may be a sort of "island" of increased stability around atomic numbers 110 to 114. Oganesson is somewhat close to this island, and it's half-life is longer than some predicted values, lending some credibility to the concept. The idea is that elements with a number of nucleons such that they can be arranged into complete shells within the atomic nucleus have a higher average binding energy per nucleon and can therefore be more stable. You can read more about this here and here.

Hope this helps!